Life on the Road Essay Example for Free

Life on the Road Essay â€Å"Life on the Road† was in my opinion written to entertain, but also to inform the reader about a hitch hikers life. The author explained the basics of his everyday journeys and how they affected him. He explained how he had to adapt to certain ways of living, from where he would sleep to where he was going to find food the next day. Surprisingly traveling also taught him how to better present himself. For example, he learned to stand, instead of sit while trying to catch a ride. This showed his determination and a more favorable self portrayed image. The lifestyle he was used to living had completely changed. He no longer had luxuries easily handed to him as we Americans do today. I also believed he wrote this article in order for us to recognize the small, but important factors in life that we usually miss considering the busy life most of us lead now a days. Wertz said, â€Å"I was gone only three months, but in those three months I felt heart. † (Wertz, 13). His view on society and life changed completely after his experience on the road. Being alone on the streets forced him to learn how to fend for himself and learn how to interact differently with people. Through out his encounters he learned there is many kinds of people. He met very beautiful people, overly happy people, extremely rude people, and sadly even people suffering worse than he was. Traits he never knew he had like sympathy peeked their head out and taught him that even though he was struggling, there are still a tremendous amount of people out in the world that have it worse than he did. His journey led him through many challenges, but mainly taught him more about how special life really is.

Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) in Lung Diseases

Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) in Lung Diseases PEFR value means peak expiratory flow rate that is a persons maximum speed of expiration. It can be measured by peak flow meter which is a simple device. People can use it monitoring their lung function in respiratory diseases. As a lung function test, it can be differentiated obstructive airway diseases such as asthma, COPD(chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases) from restrictive lung diseases. PEFR is mostly used to diagnosis asthma. Normal PEFR value depends on several factors like age, sex, height, weight, etc. So the PEFR value varies with normal individuals and a Nomo gram is utilized as a scale. In obstructive airways diseases, normal value of PEFR is reduced corresponding to above factors. As above factors, though PEFR value has some advantages, to diagnose obstructive airway diseases it cant differentiate asthma from COPD. Lung function tests, What is PEFR and how can we measure it, Importance in PEFR value in lung diseases have been included in this analytical essay. Lung Function Test Measurements of respiratory function may provide valuable information. First, in conjunction with the clinical assessment and other investigations they may help establish a diagnosis (1). Second, they will help indicate the severity of the condition. Third, serial measurements over time will show changes indicating disease progression or, alternatively, a favorable response to treatment. Finally, regular monitoring of lung function in chronic diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis or obstructive airways disease may warn of deterioration (1). Simple respiratory function tests fall into three main groups: Measuring the size of the lungs Measuring how easily air flows into and out of the airways Measuring how efficient the lungs are in the process of gas exchange (1). Pulmonary function can be measured by having a subject breathe into a device called a spirometer which recapture the expired breath and records such variables as the rate and depth of breathing, speed of expiration, and rate of oxygen consumption (2). The spirometer measures the FEV1 and the forced vital capacity (FVC). Both the FEV1 and FVC are related to height, age and sex. The technique involves a maximum inspiration followed by a forced expiration (for as long as possible) into the spirometer (3). The act of expiration triggers the moving record chart, which measures volume against time. Patients with severe airflow limitation may have a very prolonged forced expiratory time (3). At home asthma patient and others can monitor their respiratory function by blowing into a handled meter, measures peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR), the maximum speed at which they can exhale (2). Peak Expiratory Flow Rate [PEFR] Peak expiratory flow rate is the maximal rate of air flow which is a subject can achieve by a forced expiration. The peak flow, which is sustained for only a fraction of a second, occurs in the earliest part of expiration(4). The simplicity of the method is its main advantage. Normal person it is 400 Liter per minute(5). PEFR is measured by the subject inhaling to total lung capacity and exhaling into a peak flow meter with maximal effort PEFR measured using peak flow meter(6). PEFR depends on some factors the sex, age, weight, height, body-size, and muscular forces of the individual subject(4). The normal value for a given person can be determined referring to a Nomo gram. In general, the taller or younger the individual, the higher is his PEFR Normal males have a higher PEFR than normal females of the same age and height. In normal males the range of PEFR lies between 450 and 700 liters per minute (L/min.). Normal females have a lower range between 300 and 500 L/min(4). It is lower in children than in adults. It is highest in early adult life, and decreases in old age. It is higher in tall people than in short people(7). PEFR may be unrecordable on the standard Wright peak flow meter which cannot measure PEFR if it is less than 60 L/min(4). Recently a low-range, peak flow meter has been introduced which will measure much lower values of PEFR This would be appropriate for use in children(4). Peak flow meter There are two different types of peak flow meters which are Wrights peak flow meter and mini peak flow meter(4): which is an inexpensive, light and portable instrument(1,4): that can be handled easily and use to get bedside measurement. This device used to monitor a persons ability to breathe out air. This device is simpler and cheaper than spirometer. The first peak flow meter was designed by Wright and was fully described by Wright and McKerrow (1959). Recently another type of peak flow meter was presented. This device, named the Hildebrandt pneumometer, operates on an completely different principle from the Wright meter(4). A report on the Hildebrandt pneumometer and its use in general practice is published elsewhere. In the present study all PEFR measurements were made with a Wright meter. This operates on mechanical principles(4). The subject expires forcibly into the meter which causes a vane inside it to move against a spring resistance. The vane comes to rest at a position which depends upon the PEFR(4). attained. A pointer attached to the vane indicates PEFR on a dial which is calibrated in liters per minute. No calculations have to be made(4). Method of taking PEFR measurements This is an extremely simple and cheap test(3). Peak flow meter should be held horizontally and the dial must be in a vertical plane(4). Standing is the best position for taking measurements(7). It is measured using a standard Wright Peak Flow Meter or mini Wright Meter. The needle must always be reset to zero before PEF is measured. Care must be taken that the lips must be placed tightly around the mouthpiece and it is also important that he holds the meter correctly(4). The highest of three readings is used as the recorded value of the Peak expiratory flow rate(3). It may be tracks on graph paper chart with a record of symptoms or using peak flow mapping software. This allows patients to self-monitor and This allows patients to self-monitor and pass information back to their doctor or nurse. It is highly important that the subject not only understands what he is required to do but makes a maximal effort(4). If a subject has not previously performed the test careful explanation and i nstruction must be given followed by a demonstration blow by the doctor(4). Once the subject has gained confidence after one or two trial blows, Subjects are asked to take a full inspiration to total lung capacity and then blow out forcefully into the peak flow meter(4). Failure to observe that all these conditions are satisfied will result in serious errors. Different brands and models of peak flow meters often yield different values when used by the same person. Hence patients should always use the same model in the home or the doctors clinic(7). At hospital, PEFR is measured using a low-reading peak flow meter, as an ordinary meter measures only from 60 L/min upwards(3). Lung Diseases PEFR Respiratory disease Lung diseases are something. Disease or disorder that occurs in the lungs or what is causing the light that does not work correctly (8). Lung diseases are the three main types, namely: Obstructive airway disease: these diseases affect the Airways that carry oxygen and other gases to and from the lungs. These diseases cause the usually declining or blocking the airway. Including asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis (8). People who have respiratory diseases sometimes describe the feeling that you try to blow air through a chaff. Restrictive lung diseases: they are also called the lung tissue diseases. These diseases affect the configuration of lung tissue (8). Scarring or tissue inflammation makes the lungs cannot expand fully. This makes it difficult for the lungs breathe in oxygen and carbon dioxide out. Pulmonary fibrosis and sarcoidosis are examples of the lung tissue. People sometimes describe the feeling is very tight sweater or bestow it will not be able to take a deep breath (8). Lung circulation diseases: these diseases affect blood vessels in the lungs. Tread depth caused by coagulation or inflammation of the blood vessels (8). They affect the lungs of oxygen and carbon dioxide out. These diseases may also affect heart function. Many lung diseases involve a combatiinon of these three types. Asthma, Atelectasis, Bronchitis, COPD(chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), Emphysema, Lung cancer, Pneumonia, Pulmonary edema (2,4,8). Importance of PEFR in Lung diseases Determination of Peak expiratory flow rate is useful for assessing the respiratory diseases especially to differentiate the obstructive and restrictive respiratory diseases (5). Peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) measurements on waking, prior to taking a bronchodilator and before bed after a bronchodilator, are particularly useful in demonstrating the variable airflow limitation that characterizes the disease (3). The diurnal variation in PEFR is a good measure of asthma activity and is of help in the longer-term assessment of the patients disease and its response to treatment. To assess possible occupational asthma, peak flows need to be measured for at least 2 weeks at work and 2 weeks off work (3). Generally PEFR in reduced in all type of respiratory diseases. However the reduction is more significant in the obstructive diseases such as asthma, emphysema, COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases) and chronic bronchitis than in the restrictive diseases (5). Sometimes in severe re strictive lung disease, PEFR values reduced much more. So in that conditions peak flow meter cannot be used to differentiate between restrictive lung diseases from obstructive airway diseases. So PEFR measurement is useful in management obstructive airway diseases. PEFR value is more important in asthma than other respiratory diseases. Importance of PEFR in Asthma Asthma is characterized by spastic contraction of the smooth muscle in the bronchioles, which partially obstructs the bronchioles and causes extremely difficult breathing (9). It occurs in 3 to 5 per cent of all people at some time in life. The usual cause of asthma is contractile hypersensitivity of the bronchioles in response to foreign substances in the air. In about 70 per cent of patients younger than age 30 years, the asthma is caused by allergic hypersensitivity, especially sensitivity to plant pollens (9). In older people, the cause is almost always hypersensitivity to nonallergenic types of irritants in the air, such as irritants in smog (9). Classically asthma has three characteristics: Airflow limitation which is usually reversible spontaneously or with treatment (3) Airway hyperresponsiveness to a wide range of stimuli (3) Inflammation of the bronchi with T lymphocytes, mast cells, eosinophils with associated plasma exudation, oedema, smooth muscle hypertrophy, matrix deposition, mucus plugging and epithelial damage (3). In chronic asthma, inflammation may be accompanied by irreversible airflow limitation as a result of airway wall remodeling that may involve large and small airways and mucus impaction (3). Asthma is usually diagnosed by the demonstration of airflow limitation. PEFR variability as one of the important diagnostic features of asthma (10). Serial measurements of PEFR in most patients with asthma show spontaneous variability. The most characteristic pattern is of a circadian variation, with airflow limitation most severe on waking in the morning (and during the night if awoken) with improvement occurring during the morning after waking. A small circadian variation in PEFR or FEV 1 is seen in normal individuals; in asthma a difference of 20 per cent or more between the highest and lowest values may be found (11). Other patterns of variation in severity of airflow limitation may be imposed on this circadian rhythm, such as falls in PEFR provoked by exercise or exposure to an allergen or occupational sensitizer, which resolve after avoidance of the stimulus. While variations of 20 per cent or more in FEV 1 or PEFR are commonly regarded as indicating asthma, in patients with se vere airflow limitation, with an FEV 1 of 1 liter, 20 per cent variability equates to 200 ml, a level of spontaneous variation observed in people without asthma (11). In asthma, the resistance to airflow becomes especially great during expiration, sometimes causing tremendous difficulty in breathing (2). Peak flow readings are divided in three zones of measurement, are green, yellow and red. Doctors and health experts can develop asthma controlling plan based on the green-yellow-red areas(12). Green Zone - 80 to 100 percent of the regular reading or normal peak flow is clearly a treatment in green zone peak flow indicates that is under good control(12). Yellow Zone 50 to 79 percent of the usual or normal peak flow readings Indicates caution. This can lead to respiratory system is restrictive. additional drugs may be required(12). Red Zone - 50% of the normal or usual peak flow readings indicate a medical emergency. serious airway narrowing may occurring and immediate action needs to be taken. This would usually involve contacting a doctor or hospital (12). The management of asthma relies on a patients ability to monitor their asthma regularly. PEFR Monitors changing in airflow limitation in asthma. People with asthma can use it to monitor themselves and alter their medication, as suggested by their doctor, at the first signs of any fall in peak flow measurement which indicates a descent in their condition. If the patient knows his best measurement of PEFR, drop in its value of up to 10 percent, indicates caution but no danger, as this much variation is not unexpected over a period of 24hours (7). A drop of 10 to 50 percent indicates that the patient is in danger of getting an attack. If the drop is more than 50 percent, the patients in an imminent danger of getting the attack. He must approach his physician who may examine him in the emergency department of the hospital (7). The correct knowledge of the PEFR predicts the condition of the patient and provides valuable time and opportunity to take all the necessary measures to prevent an attack of asthma (7). Self-monitoring includes assessing the frequency and severity of symptoms (such as wheezing and shortness of breath) and measurement of lung function with a peak flow meter. (4) When measuring PEFR in patients with asthma or bronchitis, it is important to instruct them first to clear their bronchial airways by coughing. The effect of so doing may be considerable (4). Patients should be instructed to record peak flow readings after rising in the morning and before retiring in the evening. A diurnal variation in PEF (the lowest values typically being recorded in the morning) of more than 20% is considered diagnostic and the magnitude of variability provides some indication of disease severity (13). People with asthma can use it to monitor themselves and alter their medication, as suggested by their doctor, at the first signs of any fall in peak flow measurement which indicates decline in their condition. There are some significance PEFR in asthma patient the decreased rates of expirati on of air as expressed in decreased PEFR in asthma patients, occur earlier than the production of the symptom of breathlessness or even the signs of wheeze and ronchi detected through the stethoscope. By the time, wheezing is detected through the stethoscope; the PEFR has already decreased by 20 percent or more (7). Poor perception of the severity of asthma, on the part of the patient and physician, has been cited as a major factor causing delay in treatment, and this may contribute to increased severity and mortality from asthma exacerbation (7). Patients also measured PEFR twice a day (morning and evening) by using a peak flow meter before self-administering asthma drugs and noted the PEFR value in their asthma diary. Acute severe asthma the term status asthmaticus was defined as asthma that had failed to resolve with therapy in 24 hours. In this condition, PEFR is Circadian rhythm in peak expiratory flow rate in a patient with asthma recovering from an acute attack (11) Brittle asthma(11) is characterized by widely varying peak flow rates uncontrolled by maximum inhaled treatment. Two patterns of brittle asthma have been distinguished: type I-persistent daily chaotic variability in peak flow (usually greater than 40 per cent diurnal variation in PEFR more than 50 per cent of the time); (11) type II-sporadic sudden falls in PEFR against a background of usually well-controlled asthma with normal or near normal lung function.(11) A drop of PEFR also indicates that the patient has been exposed to allergenic environments. He must try to localize the cause and prevent recurrence of the situation. PEFR reading also helps in monitoring the improvement in the patient after a particular mode of treatment (7). The following patients should keep a peak flow monitor at home and use it: (7) Patients who experience severe attacks with little warning. Patients who need to travel long distance to receive medical attention. Patients who require high-dose inhaled corticosteroids or daily oral corticosteroids. Patients with big ups and downs in peak flow, that is, greater than 20 percent of their best peak flow. Patients whose medical history appears to provide an unsatisfactory guide to treatment. There are two very important reasons for taking flow reading at home. First, asthma doesnt behave the same way 24 hours a day. It tends to get spontaneously worse at night and get better during the day (7). Without peak flow meter at home, the physician can only guess how the patient was doing at home. Second, having a meter at home allows the patient to telephone the doctor during the night and get proper instructions for management of his case. Nine times out of ten, a Physician experienced with home peak flow, can help get his patient out of trouble quickly and avoid uncalled for visit to an emergency room or hospital (7). PEFR use in Chronic obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) refers to any disorder in which there is a long-term obstruction of airflow and a substantial reduction in pulmonary ventilation (2). The major COPDs are chronic bronchitis and emphysema. This is obstructive airway diseases like Asthma. They are almost always caused by cigarette smoking, but occasionally result from air pollution or occupational exposure to airborne irritants (2). Like in asthma, variability of PEFR value is important in diagnosing and after prognosing of COPD. Patients with chronic bronchitis are unlikely to achieve a P.E.F. higher than 400 L/min: if their condition is complicated by emphysema, values of less than 200 L/min are usually found (4). In severe emphysema or in status asthmaticus PEFR may be unrecordable on the standard Wright peak flow meter which cannot measure PEFR if it is less than 60 L/min (4). The importance of identifying chronic bronchitis at a stage before serious, irreversible changes have occurred should need no stressing. Unfortunately, the early symptoms of chronic bronchitis are so unobtrusive that patients seldom attach any importance to them: (4) therefore early chronic bronchitis is likely to be recognized only if it is specially looked for. Nobody is better placed to do this than the general practitioner now that his task has been made less formidable by the provision of objective means of assessment. Though the limitations of PEFR as an index of early chronic bronchitis have yet to be fully measured, there is no doubt that a peak flow meter will enable general practitioners to identify many early bronchitis with much greater confidence than is possible on clinical findings alone (4). Other uses Also absolute peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) has been a valuable measurement in the differentiation of acute dyspea secondary to congestive heart failure (CHF) or chronic lung disease (CLD) (15) In experimental research, it was discovered the mean absolute PEFR was 229.9 L / min for the congestive heart failure group and 121.12 L / min for the CLD group; the difference was significant. No single cut off value allowed 100 % accurate classification. However, a PEFR greater than 150 L / min was suggestive of CHF. Whereas a reading less than or equal to 150 L / min was suggestive of CLD. The Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) is Valuable in differentiation between CHF and CLD (15). Advantages and Disadvantages of PEFR There are some advantages and disadvantages utilizing peak flow meter in management of respiratory diseases. A peak flow meter that is an inexpensive, portable, handheld device and need no source of electricity and require the minimum of maintenance (4), can be used at the bedside, can be bought any person from market. Peak flow meters are very helpful if person have moderate to severe asthma and require daily asthma medications. Even children ages 4 to 5 and up should be able to use a peak flow meter with good results. People with moderate-to-severe asthma should have a peak flow meter at home (14). Although reproducible, PEFR is not a good measure of airflow limitation since it measures the expiratory flow rate only in the first 2 ms of expiration and overestimates lung function in patients with moderate airflow limitation (3). PEFR is best used to monitor progression of disease and its treatment. Regular measurements of peak flow rates on waking, during the afternoon, and before bed demonstrate the wide diurnal variations in airflow limitation that characterize asthma and allow an objective assessment of treatment to be made It can be difficult to distinguish between asthma and COPD(3): that are same feature respiratory diseases. Also a significant peak flow variability is present in, bronchiectasis, and PTLD, although PEFR remains the most important feature favoring the diagnosis of asthma (10). So there are some difficulties in differentiation of asthma from other obstructive respiratory diseases each other. This is Effort-dependent Poor measure of chronic airflow limitation (3). Older people with poor vision have difficulty reading PEF meter recordings (6). It is important to know that peak flow meter only measures the amount of airflow out of the large airways of the lungs (14). Changes in airflow caused by the small airways (which also occur with asthma) will not be detected by a peak flow meter. Early warning signs, however, may be present. Therefore, it is important, symptoms and early warning signs to best manage in asthma. The most clinically useful measurements of airflow limitation except PEFR are forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV 1), which may be expressed as a proportion of the forced vital capacity (FVC) as FEV1/FVC per cent (11). Both tests require the patient to provide a reproducible maximal forced expiratory maneuvers using tested and validated equipment. FEV1 has the advantage of a visible tracing of the expelled volume of air over time, which allows the observer to determine whether reproducible maximal forced expiratory manoeuvres have been made (11). PEFR testing does not provide this opportunity. However, peak flow meters employed to measure PEFR, unlike spirometers required to measure FEV1, can be used regularly by patients to monitor their lung function (11).

Comparisons betwen the movie One Flew over a Cuckoos Nest and a visit to a mental institution :: essays research papers

In this paper I will be comparing the visit to the State Mental Institution and the movie One Flew Over a Cuckoo's Nest. I think the two aspects of metal illnesses has had a effect on the way I see people who are not mentally stable. The three topics that are being compared are; staff concerns, spiritual development, and treatment methods. In the movie One Flew Over a Cuckoo's Nest the staff concernments was different from the staff concernments at the mental institution. In the movie nurse Ratchet was an bad influence to the patients who needed to be helped in the social groups. Instead of nurse Ratchet listening to the patients, she patronized and compressed them into their own kind of thinking. I think instead of helping them, Ms. Ratchet only mad the worst come out of the patients because of the way she downed their inner feelings and did not treat them as real people . From the visit at the State Hospital, the staff seem to real care about the patients and their mental stableness. I think with most mental illness people can really get help from people who actually care. If the staff really listen to what their patients have to say, then a patient can only be lead to better health. I think in any mental institution spiritual development with God should be allowed regardless of anything. In the movie, there really was not anything spiritual that was talked about. I think that if the nurse's and the patients had a spiritual side to them, then the sessions that took place could have been more helpful to the patients. In the State Institutionone staff memeber, told us that spirituality was show in the institution, but not to much because the staff members do not want to force their religion on the patients. The ways of treatment to the patients was an huge difference between a movie and reality. In the movie the shock treatment was heavily used for the patients who would get out of hand in the sessions. I thought that was nurse Ratchet crazy way to deal with the patients mental illnesses. In the movie there was also a time called; Medicine Time, where the patients would line up to take their medicine. In the State Institution we really did not see any patients lining up for their medicine, because they were treated like people.

Prisons Dont Work Essay examples -- Critical Thinking Essays

Right now in the United States of America murderers, rapists, and child molesters are being set free. Prisoners are watching T.V., eating a meal, and using exercise equipment while law abiding citizens are starving and living in the gutters. Prisoners even have their own periodical. Dangerous criminals are walking the streets and crime is a way of life to many Americans. In America, crime does pay because our nations prison system is not working. The nations prison system must be changed because of major problems with the system such as overcrowding and the fact that early release programs do not work. Building more jails is expensive and does not solve anything. These problems can be solved by giving prisoners no chance for parole and imprisoning only violent offenders. The non-violent offenders should enter a work program for the duration of their sentence. Since 1980, jail and prison populations have grown by 172 percent(United States 11 Sept. 1994). Overcrowding is both inhumane to the prisoner and dangerous to the prison staff. When you put a lot of people, especially criminals, in close quarters tensions rise and the chance of a riot increases. If a riot occurs both prisoners and guards are put in danger. In Texas the jails are full. There is an estimated backlog of 29,000 state prisoners who are incarcerated in county jails awaiting new cells.(Brida 24 Nov. 1994) Texas is not the only state with overcrowding problems. For example, Ohios prison system is operating at 180 percent of capacity.(Varnam 16) Also, the federal prison system is 37 percent over-capacity(Clark 4 Feb. 1994). Statistics like this are found across the country. Prisons should have two objectives; 1) keep dangerous criminals off the streets ... ...ng more prisons cut the crime rate? The CQ Researcher 4 Feb. 1994URL:gopher://gopher.cqalert.com/0F1:25674:05CQR_FEBRUARY1994%20gopher. Cunniff, Mark A. and Patrick A. Langan. Recidivism of Felons on Probation, 1986-89. 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://justice2. usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/13. Prison Inmates To Work In Wildlife Management Areas.Associated Press 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://gopher.cic.net/00/nircomm/ gopher/e-serials/general/education/univ-newspapers/daily- texan/today/94041507.s03_Prison.gz. Sanchez , Edward J. Look Beyond Capital Punishment. 26 Nov. 1994 (found) URL:?. United States. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Probation And Parole Populations Reach New Highs. 11 Sept. 1994. URL:gopher://justice2.usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/probpar.txt. Voters Get Tough On Criminals. The Associated Press 9 Nov. 1994. URL:?. Prisons Don't Work Essay examples -- Critical Thinking Essays Right now in the United States of America murderers, rapists, and child molesters are being set free. Prisoners are watching T.V., eating a meal, and using exercise equipment while law abiding citizens are starving and living in the gutters. Prisoners even have their own periodical. Dangerous criminals are walking the streets and crime is a way of life to many Americans. In America, crime does pay because our nations prison system is not working. The nations prison system must be changed because of major problems with the system such as overcrowding and the fact that early release programs do not work. Building more jails is expensive and does not solve anything. These problems can be solved by giving prisoners no chance for parole and imprisoning only violent offenders. The non-violent offenders should enter a work program for the duration of their sentence. Since 1980, jail and prison populations have grown by 172 percent(United States 11 Sept. 1994). Overcrowding is both inhumane to the prisoner and dangerous to the prison staff. When you put a lot of people, especially criminals, in close quarters tensions rise and the chance of a riot increases. If a riot occurs both prisoners and guards are put in danger. In Texas the jails are full. There is an estimated backlog of 29,000 state prisoners who are incarcerated in county jails awaiting new cells.(Brida 24 Nov. 1994) Texas is not the only state with overcrowding problems. For example, Ohios prison system is operating at 180 percent of capacity.(Varnam 16) Also, the federal prison system is 37 percent over-capacity(Clark 4 Feb. 1994). Statistics like this are found across the country. Prisons should have two objectives; 1) keep dangerous criminals off the streets ... ...ng more prisons cut the crime rate? The CQ Researcher 4 Feb. 1994URL:gopher://gopher.cqalert.com/0F1:25674:05CQR_FEBRUARY1994%20gopher. Cunniff, Mark A. and Patrick A. Langan. Recidivism of Felons on Probation, 1986-89. 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://justice2. usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/13. Prison Inmates To Work In Wildlife Management Areas.Associated Press 24 Nov. 1994(found) URL:gopher://gopher.cic.net/00/nircomm/ gopher/e-serials/general/education/univ-newspapers/daily- texan/today/94041507.s03_Prison.gz. Sanchez , Edward J. Look Beyond Capital Punishment. 26 Nov. 1994 (found) URL:?. United States. Department of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Probation And Parole Populations Reach New Highs. 11 Sept. 1994. URL:gopher://justice2.usdoj.gov/00/ojp/bjs/probpar.txt. Voters Get Tough On Criminals. The Associated Press 9 Nov. 1994. URL:?.

Ethical Principles for Research

Ethical Principles for Research There is four well-known moral principles constitute the basis for ethics in research. They are first, the principle of non-maleficence. It means that the research must not cause harm to the participants in particular and to people in general. Second is the principle of beneficence. That show the Research should also make a positive contribution towards the welfare of people. It should be provide benefit for whatever treatment is. Third is the principle of autonomy. The research must respect and protect the rights and dignity of participants. For my perspective if my doctor ask me to take an antibiotic to treat the infection, is my right to consent the treatment or withdraw my consent. Next is the principle of justice. The benefits and risks of research should be fairly distributed among people. The ten general ethical principles, presently relevant for social science research in health are as follows. First is essentiality. This is for undertaking research it is necessary to make all possible efforts to get and give adequate consideration to existing literature/knowledge and its relevance, and the alternatives available on the subject/ issue under the study. Second is, Maximisation of public interest and of social justice. That means that the research is a social activity, carried out for the benefit of society. It should be undertaken with the motive of maximisation of public interest and social justice. Third is knowledge, ability and commitment to do research. It shows that sincere commitment to research in general and to the relevant subject in particular, and readiness to acquire adequate knowledge, ability and skill for undertaking particular research are essential prerequisites for good and ethical research. Next is the respect and protection of autonomy, rights and dignity of participants. This research involving participation of individual must not only respect, but also protect the autonomy, the rights and the dignity of participants. The participation of individual must be voluntary and based on informed consent. Next is the privacy, anonymity and confidentiality. It shows that all information and records provided by participants or obtained directly or indirectly on/about the participants are confidential. For revealing or sharing any information that may identify participants, permission of the participants is essential. Then, the precaution and risk minimisation. For this research all research carries some risk to the participants and to society. Taking adequate precautions and minimising and mitigating risks is, therefore, essential. Then,non-exploitation. The research must not unnecessarily consume the time of participants or make them incur undue loss of resources and income. It should not expose them to risks due to participation in the research. The relationship within the research team, including student and junior members, should be based on the principle of non- exploitation. Contribution of each member of the research team should be properly acknowledged and recognised. Next is public domain. It needed all persons and organisations connected to research should make adequate efforts to make public in appropriate manner and form, and at appropriate time, information on the research undertaken, and the relevant results and implications of completed research. Then, accountability and transparency. The conduct of research must be fair, honest and transparent. It is desirable institutions and researchers are amenable to social and financial review of their research by an appropriate and responsible social body. They should also make appropriate arrangements for the preservation of research records for a reasonable period of time. Last but not least, totality of responsibility. The responsibility for due observance of all principles of ethics and guidelines devolves on all those directly or indirectly connected with the research. They include institution where the research is conducted, researcher, sponsors/funders and those who publish material generated from research.

The Evolution of Total Quality Management

Until the industrial revolution in the mid 18th century, most goods were custom made. Industrialisation brought about a fundamental shift from cottage industry production to large scale manufacturing. Simultaneously, industrial activity underwent extensive mechanisation. As explained by Ho, ‘craftsmen were diminishing and being replaced by mass production and repetitive work practices.’ The aim with the new industrial era was to produce large numbers of the same product which required processes to be put in place to control quality as it could not be left up to individuals. Cali explains that the shift away from the production of goods by individual craftsmen bought about the introduction of the assembly line between 1900 and1940 in America where products passed consecutively through various operations. Cali describes how ‘Standardisation became the trend’ adding that the prevailing management thinking at this time centred around keeping jobs simple and under close supervision. The expectation was that workers would meet standards only if closely supervised. The 2nd world war played a key role in the evolution of TQM. Factories geared up for mass production and were split into functional departments. At the end of the war, America undertook the rebuilding of Japan’s shattered economy. Amongst the many Americans that were sent to Japan to support this effort was Dr W Edwards Deming. He was instrumental in convincing the Japanese to adopt the principles of industrial efficiency and thus the development of the TQM theory was born. He advocated a climate of ‘continuous improvement’. â€Å"Listen to me† Deming told the Japanese â€Å"†¦and in 5 yrs you will be competing with the West. Keep listening and soon the West will be demanding protection from you†. Using his TQM principles, firstly with manufacturing and then to sales and other areas, the Japanese gradually developed their own version of TQM so that by the 1970s, they had begun to dominate some of the manufacturing markets. Deming believed they had done this because they had learned a fundamental principle of TQM that was summed up by Deming: â€Å"Nobody except the Japanese understand that as you improve quality, you also improve productivity.† During the 1970s, American’s position as the world’s foremost industrial power had begun to decline. For example, the U.S. share of the manufacturing market in 1970 was down to 17% from a high in the 1950s of 35% (Cali pg16). Brown believes that the reason for this decline can be partly explained by the way American companies practised the art of inspections in manufacturing products whilst their Japanese counterparts embraced the TQM consumer needs messages promoted by quality gurus including Feigenbaum who promoted the principle that â€Å"The total composite product and service characteristics †¦ through which the product or service in use will meet the expectation of the customer† (Feigenbaum in Brown et al, 2000, pg 194). The reaction by American firms to the success of Japanese was to adopt more of the principles taught by the American TQM gurus. Cali describes how ‘Many American companies achieved success by refocusing their attention on quality and by making satisfied customers their top priority.’ During the early days of manufacturing, inspections were seen as the best way to insure quality within a business. Ho explains that this is a process by which an operative’s work was inspected on a frequent bases and a decision was made on whether or not the individuals work was at a high enough standard. At the time this was seen as an acceptable way of insuring quality in a business, it become larger as the business grew and it created many inspection jobs. However, often as a business progresses, problems can be more advanced and therefore require more technical skill which quite often inspectors did not have due to a lack of training. This resulted in inspectors ignoring problems with products in order to increase output, which obviously led to poor products giving the business a bad image. So gradually, during the post-war years (as Cali explains) â€Å"†¦ a sea change began taking place in American management philosophy.† as managers began to understand that work of employees needed to be acknowledged and that workers needed to be consulted if quality was to be improved. In Deming’s book ‘Out of the Crisis’ he explains in his fourteen principles that inspection is not the way forward if a businesses is to ensure quality. He says â€Å"Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for massive inspection by building quality into the product in the first place† It is around the time that we begin to see the emergence of quality assurance with more emphasis focused on the training and development of staff, recording of data and the accuracy in which things were measured. Brown et all describes how â€Å"In the 1980s, leading-edge corporations sparked a revolution as they implemented Total Quality programmes across entire organisations. In such a programme the responsibility for quality is with the whole workforce. Each employee is responsible for the quality of their own job, their own actions. It could be said that responsibility for quality lies with 100% of the workforce. Another TQM guru, Joseph Juran also influenced the thinking at this time by promoting the need for education and training in the workforce so there is no need for inspection. He added that quality should be about â€Å"Fitness for purpose or use†. By the 1990s, TQM was becoming the buzz word in the global business world. Cali says in his introduction to TQM that â€Å"TQM is destined to become one of the most frequently used acronyms of the 1990s.† He went on to say that growing numbers of CEOs in the USA and abroad believed that TQM was the â€Å"†¦wave of the future.† Part of the evolution of TQM practice was the use of statistical quality control. This was quality control by using statistical methods. It was first introduced by an American physicist and statistician called Walter A. Stewart, famously known as the ‘father of statistical control’. His work was later progressed by Deming who applied statistical control methods in America during World War 2; he applied his methods to many strategically important products thus improving the quality and output of manufacturing. The term Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is used to describe the set of statistical tools used by quality professionals in modern quality management practice. An example of this method is Six Sigma. According to Motorola: â€Å"Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition.† The UK Department for Trade & Industry explains that â€Å"Six sigma is a data driven method for achieving near perfect quality†. According to Berger, Six Sigma which began in 1986 as a statistically based method to reduce variation in electronic manufacturing processes in Motorola Inc is now considered to be the most popular TQM method in the history of TQM. Six sigma is an enormous brand in the world of corporate development. Today, more than 20 years on, Six Sigma is used as an all encompassing business performance methodology, all over the world, in organisations as diverse as local government departments, hospitals, banks and multi national co operations. The establishment of modern day TQM tools and technologies such as Six Sigma brings the evolution of TQM full circle. We’ve seen that quality evolution has become the quality revolution. In a relatively short time many companies have chosen quality as a strategic goal. As noted in Tom Peters’ and Nancy Austin’s seminal work, A Passion for Excellence, explains that ‘†¦. winners compete by delivering a product that supplies superior value, rather than one that costs less’ We’ve seen from the Japanese that a focus on quality can bring success in terms of market share and profits. Companies in the West such as M & S and Mercedes Benz have shown that improved market share comes from doing the right things, all the time. Crosby very interestingly emphasizes the principle of â€Å"doing it right the first time† which means instead of having an inspection on quality, just make sure it is already up to scratch. Cali believes that the ‘process of continued improvement’ was a key stage in the evolution of TQM. He suggests that the Japanese consider quality an integral part of product and process design. Cali adds â€Å"In the United States 20-25% of production cost goes to the quality assurance personnel who find and correct mistakes. In Japan, only 3 per cent of production cost is spent this way.† Cali explains that the Japanese use TQM methods by assigning the in-process inspection to individual production workers who complete elementary statistical analyses and are authorised to take basic corrective action. â€Å"The result is greater individual pride in workmanship and higher employee motivation† says Cali. . Surely this is the essence of TQM and brings the evolution of TQM full circle? In conclusion, this discussion has attempted to explain how the evolution of TQM can be traced back to the early days of the industrial revolution with its principles of inspection and focus on measuring the product to the sophisticated systems for improving and managing quality which we have come to know today. The key point to conclude with is that the change in quality management culture from ‘if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it’ to ‘if it ain’t perfect, continue to improve it’ was not sequential nor was it down to an individual guru or country but as this discussion has outlined it evolved more through a combination of developments in inspections, quality control, quality assurance and ultimately in the way these processes were managed and delivered.

Ernest J. Gaines: a Lesson Before Dying Essay

After reading the† lesson before dying â€Å"by Ernest J. Gaines the two characters that Really peeked my interest was Grant Wiggins and Tane Lou. These two are in relation by blood. this is very surprising being they are the total opposites when it comes to their characters. So I will be comparing these 2 characters. Tante Lou is the aunt of Grant and tante Lou are the total opposites of each other. Grant is so serious all the time and there’s something on his mind constantly. But he chooses to just stay silent about whatever he is thinking or going through. Whereas Tante Lou is the opposite she’s really free spirited. She takes him and really cares for him even through his flaws. Even through all his obstacles she’s able to change him for the better. He becomes a hero in this story he’s the protagonist in this story. He comes off as being so arrogant and wants freedom, respect but doesn’t do anything about it. But however great aunt tante i s anything but shy she will step up. She’s a role model in his life and the black community. Her actions throughout the story show that she has a big heart that loves but also is bossy. She accepts grant for who he is but says hey don’t put your people down. Stand up and use that education your smart let people see that side of you make an impact. Tante Lou is a unique and beautiful person she finds the good things in life through anything. She has a strong belief in god and his good works. Grant goes to church and is religious as well but he seems lost. He’s there but not really and needs direction. So these two characters kind of balance each other out. Grant carries himself as being protagonists throughout the story because he is the narrator in the story. He comes off as being arrogant because he feels that there is no hope for his community. Unlike the others he actually got away and went to college and earned a degree. He wants equality treatment and we see this without this he feels enslaved. Based on his personality he is quiet on the inside but has something to say. There is a part that of him that hasn’t really been exposed His demeanor is that he has used his formal education as a way of distinguishing himself from the others. The fact that he feels this way he doesn’t feel the need to try and make a change or impact at all for his people. Grant feels like nothing will ever change and that he’s an African american stuck in a white racist world. Grant was the only one to leave for a temporarily short period when he went to get a college education and that was rare for the newly freed slaves. Even after the emancipation and getting and education without the barriers they had before. He sticks around but has no reason to stay which is strange he feels enslaved even when he isn’t His overall demeanor is that he seems conflicted with himself and he’s looking for a fight to win. His moods vary depending on how he feels in the story he is very mysterious. He changes from being afraid when first helping Jefferson to being proud. Then when he is with Vivian and his aunt tante he’s kind and caring. When it’s just him he’s is very standoffish and he is very reserved. His character dresses just as his personality is he wears bow ties, white collared shirt and trousers and dress shoes. This is what he wears pretty when it comes to clothes. He wants to make a statement by dressing like this and who he is. Tante is the Aunt of Grant and all we have to go on is her remarks throughout the story. She has what grant lacks which is hope and resilience in this story. The facts that grant has a cynical branded of atheism makes her disapprove it. She is a very spiritual person and is highly motivated by god. Tante constantly is trying to see the good in people and change them for the better. She dresses respectably in society and insists on being chauffeured in the back seat to the pichots. This goes to show you that even though they were regarded as the lower and poor class she didn’t let that affect her. She regarded the way she dressed as the way of saying just because we don’t have money and education doesn’t make us different. She isn’t going to give in to the concept that blacks in the south are the bottom rung. Tante not only is a leader in the community but also in grants life. People look at her to step up and take action and she does by telling grant to be compassionate and helpful. She forces his hand to help Jefferson who was convicted of a crime which he never did. Her faith in god and good works makes her whats good especially for grant in every way. Although physically free, Grant lives in a mental prison of his own making created by his hatred of whites, his arrogance, and his detachment from the black community. As an educated man, he sees himself as superior to people like Jefferson and Rev. Instead of preparing him to contribute to his community, his formal education has taught him to despise his own people. Consequently, he uses his role as a teacher not to inspire and uplift his students but to humiliate and ridicule them, much as his own teacher. Matthew Antoine humiliated and ridiculed him. Thus, instead of using his skills and talents to change the cycle of poverty and violence, Grant perpetuates the cycle by failing to challenge the system.